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The body uses cholesterol for physiological and structural functions but makes more than enough for these purposes. Therefore, people do not need to obtain cholesterol through foods.
The Key Recommendation from the 2010 Dietary Guidelines to limit consumption of dietary cholesterol to 300 mg per day is not included in the 2015 edition, but this change does not suggest that dietary cholesterol is no longer important to consider when building healthy eating patterns. As recommended by the IOM,[24] individuals should eat as little dietary cholesterol as possible while consuming a healthy eating pattern. In general, foods that are higher in dietary cholesterol, such as fatty meats and high-fat dairy products, are also higher in saturated fats. The USDA Food Patterns are limited in saturated fats, and because of the commonality of food sources of saturated fats and dietary cholesterol, the Patterns are also low in dietary cholesterol. For example, the Healthy U.S.-Style Eating Pattern contains approximately 100 to 300 mg of cholesterol across the 12 calorie levels. Current average intake of dietary cholesterol among those 1 year and older in the United States is approximately 270 mg per day.
Strong evidence from mostly prospective cohort studies but also randomized controlled trials has shown that eating patterns that include lower intake of dietary cholesterol are associated with reduced risk of CVD, and moderate evidence indicates that these eating patterns are associated with reduced risk of obesity. As described earlier, eating patterns consist of multiple, interacting food components and the relationships to health exist for the overall eating pattern, not necessarily to an isolated aspect of the diet. More research is needed regarding the dose-response relationship between dietary cholesterol and blood cholesterol levels. Adequate evidence is not available for a quantitative limit for dietary cholesterol specific to the Dietary Guidelines.
Dietary cholesterol is found only in animal foods such as egg yolk, dairy products, shellfish, meats, and poultry. A few foods, notably egg yolks and some shellfish, are higher in dietary cholesterol but not saturated fats. Eggs and shellfish can be consumed along with a variety of other choices within and across the subgroup recommendations of the protein foods group.
Sodium
Healthy intake: The scientific consensus from expert bodies, such as the IOM, the American Heart Association, and Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committees, is that average sodium intake, which is currently 3,440 mg per day (see Chapter 2), is too high and should be reduced. Healthy eating patterns limit sodium to less than 2,300 mg per day for adults and children ages 14 years and older and to the age- and sex-appropriate Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (UL) of sodium for children younger than 14 years (see Appendix 7). Sodium is an essential nutrient and is needed by the body in relatively small quantities, provided that substantial sweating does not occur.[25] Sodium is primarily consumed as salt (sodium chloride).
The limits for sodium are the age- and sex-appropriate ULs. The UL is the highest daily nutrient intake level that is likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects to almost all individuals in the general population. The recommendation for adults and children ages 14 years and older to limit sodium intake to less than 2,300 mg per day is based on evidence showing a linear dose-response relationship between increased sodium intake and increased blood pressure in adults. In addition, moderate evidence suggests an association between increased sodium intake and increased risk of CVD in adults. However, this evidence is not as consistent as the evidence on blood pressure, a surrogate indicator of CVD risk.
Calorie intake is highly associated with sodium intake (i.e., the more foods and beverages people consume, the more sodium they tend to consume). Because children have lower calorie needs than adults, the IOM established lower ULs for children younger than 14 years of age based on median intake of calories. Similar to adults, moderate evidence also indicates that the linear dose-response relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure is found in children as well.
Adults with prehypertension and hypertension would particularly benefit from blood pressure lowering. For these individuals, further reduction to 1,500 mg per day can result in even greater blood pressure reduction. Because of the linear dose-response relationship between sodium intake and blood pressure, every incremental decrease in sodium intake that moves toward recommended limits is encouraged. Even without reaching the limits for sodium intake, strong evidence indicates that reductions in sodium intake can lower blood pressure among people with prehypertension and hypertension. Further, strong evidence has demonstrated that adults who would benefit from blood pressure lowering should combine the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) dietary pattern with lower sodium intake (see Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension call-out box).
Considerations: As a food ingredient, sodium has multiple uses, such as in curing meat, baking, thickening, enhancing flavor (including the flavor of other ingredients), as a preservative, and in retaining moisture. For example, some fresh meats have sodium solutions added to help retain moisture in cooking. As discussed in Chapter 2, sodium is found in foods across the food supply, including mixed dishes such as burgers, sandwiches, and tacos; rice, pasta, and grain dishes; pizza; meat, poultry, and seafood dishes; and soups. Multiple strategies should be implemented to reduce sodium intake to the recommended limits (see Chapter 3. Everyone Has a Role in Supporting Healthy Eating Patterns).
Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)
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The DASH dietary pattern is an example of a healthy eating pattern and has many of the same characteristics as the Healthy U.S.-Style Eating Pattern. The DASH dietary pattern and several variations have been tested in randomized controlled clinical trials to study the effect of the DASH dietary pattern on CVD risk factors. The original DASH trial demonstrated that the DASH dietary pattern lowered blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol levels, resulting in reduced CVD risk, compared to diets that resembled a typical American diet. The DASH-Sodium trial confirmed the beneficial blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol effects of the DASH eating pattern at three levels of dietary sodium intake and also demonstrated a step-wise lowering of blood pressure as sodium intake was reduced. The OmniHeart Trial found that replacing some of the carbohydrates in DASH with the same amount of either protein or unsaturated fats lowered blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol levels more than the original DASH dietary pattern.
The DASH Eating Plan is high in vegetables, fruits, low-fat dairy products, whole grains, poultry, fish, beans, and nuts and is low in sweets, sugar-sweetened beverages, and red meats. It is low in saturated fats and rich in potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as well as dietary fiber and protein. It also is lower in sodium than the typical American diet, and includes menus with two levels of sodium, 2,300 and 1,500 mg per day. Additional details on DASH are available athttp://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/dash.
The DASH dietary pattern is an example of a healthy eating pattern and has many of the same characteristics as the Healthy U.S.-Style Eating Pattern. The DASH dietary pattern and several variations have been tested in randomized controlled clinical trials to study the effect of the DASH dietary pattern on CVD risk factors. The original DASH trial demonstrated that the DASH dietary pattern lowered blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol levels, resulting in reduced CVD risk, compared to diets that resembled a typical American diet. The DASH-Sodium trial confirmed the beneficial blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol effects of the DASH eating pattern at three levels of dietary sodium intake and also demonstrated a step-wise lowering of blood pressure as sodium intake was reduced. The OmniHeart Trial found that replacing some of the carbohydrates in DASH with the same amount of either protein or unsaturated fats lowered blood pressure and LDL-cholesterol levels more than the original DASH dietary pattern.
The DASH Eating Plan is high in vegetables, fruits, low-fat dairy products, whole grains, poultry, fish, beans, and nuts and is low in sweets, sugar-sweetened beverages, and red meats. It is low in saturated fats and rich in potassium, calcium, and magnesium, as well as dietary fiber and protein. It also is lower in sodium than the typical American diet, and includes menus with two levels of sodium, 2,300 and 1,500 mg per day. Additional details on DASH are available athttp://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/dash.
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